On Monday night I gave the Younghusband Lecture to the Adventure Circle of the Army and Navy Club in London. My subject was Kazakhstan: Exploring the Northern Silk Road, based largely on my trip earlier this year from Almaty to the remnants of the Aral Sea in the far west of the country.
Having now spent 15 years or so exploring various parts of Kazakhstan, mostly in the east and south-east, I was finally struck by the importance of the route across the southern part of the country that is sometimes referred to as the Ferghana-Syr Darya Corridor. This east-west route follows the course of the great Syr Darya River as it meanders its way to the northern part of what remains of the Aral Sea. It is a route that has existed for thousands of years and once would have led caravans from the Pamir Mountains up past the Aral and on towards the Volga River and the former Golden Horde city of Kazan or further west, across the top of the Caspian Sea towards Krim (Crimea).
The Syr Darya is almost a mirror image of the more southerly Amu Darya River – known in antiquity as the Oxus – but is much less well known. When most people think of the Silk Road they tend to think of the cities of Samarkand, Bokhara and Khiva, all closely linked to the Amu Darya.
These two great Central Asian Rivers have always been important in the history of the region, providing water for agriculture and defining borders and spheres of influence. And yet while many people are familiar with the great cities associated with Timur and the Uzbek Khanate, very few know much about the northern route. It too has associations with Timur, particularly the city of Turkistan, but it also has its own rich history. Along this northern Silk Road can be found the remains of many great cities that flourished in the period before the discovery of the sea routes between China, India and Western Europe.
These cities include Otrar, Sauran, Kyshkala, Asanas, Syganak, Yassy and Zhankala, all now nominated by the Kazakhs for UNESCO World Heritage status. Along this route can also be found the magnificent ancient petroglyphs at Arpauzen and the cosmodrome at Baikonur.
The remains of SauranOtrarZhankalaMausoleum of Khoja Ahmed Yasawi in TurkistanAnother view of the Mausoleum.
There are still many discoveries to be made along the Northern Silk Road. Friends in Kazakhstan tell me that they have come across the remains of ‘lost’ cities in the Kara Kum Desert that are not mentioned on any maps or history books. Adventure beckons!
My recent trip to the Aral Sea was memorable for many reasons, not least the incredible scenery and the impression it made on me. But there were several incidents that stand out for entirely separate reasons and I would like to share some of these with you.
The first occurred on the day after we arrived at Kambash Lake, one of the relict lakes left behind following the disappearance of the Aral Sea. The lake itself is a beautiful location and full of fish and with a healthy wild bird population.
Zhomart Beketov
Soon after breakfast a man arrived in our camp, having heard there were strangers in the area. This was Zhomart Beketov, a 62-year-old local. He immediately brought out of his bag an old picture. It portrayed a woman and a group of children dancing in the garden of what looks like a European house and was clearly quite old – probably from the middle of the 19th century. He also had a small embroidered cloth and a boxed German harmonica.
The painting was not entirely an original. It was an early colour print, to which painted highlights had been added. It was intrinsically of little financial value. But this little group of objects held some secrets. Zhomart explained that these items had all belonged to Latvians who had been exiled to this remote spot on the north-east coast of the Aral Sea in the 1940s, after Russia had invaded the Baltic states. Zhomart did not know their names, but he told us that all of them had died – long before he was born – and that these items were all that was left to remind anyone that they had been there.
The Hohner harmonica that had come from Latvia
The items had eventually been passed on to Zhomart by his father, a teacher. But Zhomart had always thought that they should be repatriated to Latvia and he had been trying for some time to find a way to do this. He had found the name of the framemaker on the back of the picture and tried, without luck, to trace a living relative. There was also a name written in ink on the back, which he assumed could be the artist, so he had also tried to see if he could find any descendants.
He had even written to the prominent Latvia artist Andris Eglitis – who has the same name as the signature on the back of the picture – to ask for his help in tracking down someone connected with this painting. And now, as soon as he heard that there were strangers in the area, he had decided to show the items to them in the hope that someone might be able to help.
Without more information it is probably impossible to find out the original owners of the picture and other items. These were little comforting objects that probably helped the exiled Latvians to remember where they came from and which they had managed to bring all the way from north-west Europe to this remote place in the deserts surrounding the Aral Sea. I suggested that Zhomart should contact the Latvian embassy. They might be willing to take the objects, which could form part of a collection connected with the history of Latvian exiles from that period. There is also just a chance that by writing about them, someone might see a connection. If so, please get in touch and I will pass on the message.
The second incident I want to mentioned happened in the little sand-blown village of Kulandy, where we stayed the night in the house of Kurman Ali, a local camel breeder. With 12 guests in his house Kurman made sure that we were well looked after. Indeed, his wife and daughter-in-law prepared a substantial dinner for us of beshparmak, a Kazakh horsemeat delicacy.
Our hosts in Kulandy
In preparation for the meal the ladies took great pains to lay fresh linen on the long, low table. And as soon as they had done that they covered the entire table in old newspaper, to protect the linen from the food.
After we had been sitting there for a while waiting for dinner to be served, one of our group, Abzal, began to read the yellowing newspaper pages that were scattered across the table. First, he noted that the paper dated from September 2018 and we had a laugh about that. Then, he began to laugh aloud. Of course, we all wanted to know what was happening. Abzal explained that he had begun to read an article about an expedition made that year from the Caspian Sea to the Aral Sea and had suddenly realised that it was an interview with our friend Dauren Raptayev, the organiser of the present expedition, who was sitting opposite him! Dauren confirmed that he had indeed given an interview to a local paper back in 2018. Like us, he was amazed to find it now spread out on the table in front of us. What were the chances of that?
Dauren hold up a copy of the 8-year-old article from the paper that was lying on the table
There’s no point in trying to explain how this happened. Coincidence? How else could you explain it?
I never did find out that name of our host’s wife, although later she offered to show me how she milked the camels. We were taken to a little shed in which there was a solitary baby camel. As we were waiting there, the baby’s mother pushed her way into the yard. Mrs Ali (as I will call her) was well prepared for what was undoubtedly something of an ordeal. She had wrapped a scarf around her face, as the camel was more than likely to spit at her. Then she had to tie up the big camel, including tying its back legs together, to stop it kicking her. Even so, it was still trying to bite her. It would only give milk if the baby was suckling, so as soon as this began, Mrs Ali had to stand on one leg and balance a bucket on the other to collect the milk.
Warning: Do not try this at home
After 10 minutes or so she had about a litre of warm, fresh milk. That was taken back to the house to be pasteurised and transformed into sharbet, a delicious and wholesome drink.
Dorota Bronikowska is a Polish artist who specialises in cyanotypes – the photographic process that produces a monochrome, blue-coloured print and is often used for art and reprography in the form of blueprints. I met her last September at the World Nomad Games in Astana, Kazakhstan, where she had travelled to take images that could later be processed into cyanotypes.
Dorota Bronikowska
I’m delighted to say that Dorota is now about to launch the results of her endeavours in a major new exhibition in Lublin, Poland. From the 7th – 21st June she will be exhibiting as part of the Second Eastern film Festival in the city. Her show of cyanotypes, entitled Kazakhstan –Tengri Kingdom, can be seen at the Dominican Monastery in the city*.
Explaining the show, Dorota says:
“Tengri is heaven. For centuries, Tengri has led its children and their herds across the sea of the steppe. So that they do not lose their way in space and time. Today’s Kazakhstan is an ethnic mosaic. In addition to Kazakhs, Uzbeks, Tatars, Chechens, Koreans, Germans, Poles live here. In total, over 130 nationalities are registered. Tengri lives in the Kazakh soul. Modern Kazakhs have one foot in modernity but still cultivate traditions from the times when Tengri was a god. The most striking example is the main axis of the capital of Kazakhstan – Astana. The main boulevard of this ultramodern city was led along a sacred road, and in the middle was erected a tower, referring to the shamanic tree of life. I have been to Kazakhstan twice. I made my first trip by bike. Then I visited holy places, met fascinating people. I saw how life is under the wings of Tengri. During my second trip, I watched ethnic sportsmen and women compete at the World Nomad Games. The different sports eloquently reflect the character and life of the ancient nomads on the Great Steppe.”
*Kazakhstan – Tengri Kingdom” will be on show at Lublin Monastery, entrance in Dominikanski Square, 20-112, Lublin from 7pm on 7 June – 21 June. Entrance Thurs-Sun, 1pm-5pm. Organised groups by appointment. Free admission. Created in cooperation with the Embassy of the Republic of Kazakhstan in the Republic of Poland, and Air Astana.
Here are a few more exmples of Dorota’s work. If you get a chance, visit the exhibition. More about the Festival here.
As the editor of the English language Selected Works of Chokan Valikhanov, it has long been my wish to visit the Altyn Emel Memorial Museum dedicated to this great 19th century Kazakh in the village of Shokan in the Altyn Emel region of south-east Kazakhstan .
The museum is about 2 hours outside Almaty, close to the Altyn Emel national park, and about 5kms from the actual burial place of Valikhanov, who died there in 1865.
Valikhanov’s writings in English
The museum building itself is unique and was designed by architects A. Seydalin, B. Ibraev and S. Rustambekov. All corners of the unusual building are of different sizes, with beams that descend into the centre, passing into a “knot of happiness”, woven from colored cords.
Internally, the visitor walks into a main hall, all the time ascending in a spiral until a top gallery is reached. The hall is dominated by a huge woven carpet illustrating elements of Valikhanov’s life. Mangyshlak limestone is used in the decoration of the facade of the building – a soft, pliable pink stone.
I was introduced to the director, Maral Rahatova, who kindly asked me to sign the visitors’ book and pose for a photograph with the staff. The museum itself contains a number of items that once belonged to Valikhanov, including his tiny pistol, gilded in gold, his tea bowl and various items of his clothing.
Valikhanov’s pistol
Outside the museum is a large bronze statue of Valikhanov that dominates the area. And a few kilometres away is his actual burial place, where he died – probably of TB – aged only 29, in 1865.
Statue of Valikhanov outside the Museum
The burial place of Valikhanov
All-in-all, this was a wonderful visit. Although it is a bit remote, anyone visiting will find it well worth the journey. If you want to know more about this great thinker and historian, track down a copy of my book, or you can read it online here.
The two tigers that arrived in the Ile-Balkash Reserve last September have begun to mate, as can be seen in the film clip above. Nine-year-old Kuma and 12-year-old Bohdana appear none the worse after surviving their first winter in Kazakhstan. As can be seen in the video, there is still snow on the ground in their compound.
These two tigers arrived from a zoo in Holland and neither of them have ever spent time in the wild. It is unlikely that they will ever be released, as they lack the hunting skills needed to survive. However, any cubs they produce will be kept away from humans and released into the Reserve to fend for themselves when they are about two years old. Tigers give birth after about 20 weeks, so any cubs should be born in July.
During the cubs’ first two years, whilst they are still in captivity prey species such as deer and wild boar will be introduced into their compounds so that they can learn to hunt. This will equip them for life in the Reserve once they are released.
Up to five further tigers from Russia should be arriving in the 415,000-hectare Ile-Balkash Reserve this year. After a short period in compounds they will be released directly into the Reserve and it is hoped they will become the nucleus of a breeding population that could eventually reach more than 100 animals.
Tigers were once common in Central Asia, where they were known as Turanian tigers or Caspian tigers. They are genetically indistinguishable from the Siberian or Amur tigers that inhabit the far east of Siberia. All the tigers being taken to Kazakhstan are from this subspecies, which is adapted to withstand the harsh winters that can see temperatures fall as low as -40 degrees C. Numbers declined due to hunting and poaching and the the last ones were killed in the mid-1950s.
As you walk into the British Museum’s new Silk Roads exhibition the first thing that confronts you in in the otherwise empty entrance hall is a tiny copper alloy buddha only three inches high. The buddha dates from the 6th or 7th centuries CE and was probably made in the Swat Valley in what is now northern Pakistan. But what is remarkable about it is the fact that it was found on the small lake island of Helgö in Sweden from archaeological levels that date to around 800CE.
There in a nutshell is the intellectual proposition that lies beneath the exhibition – that the ‘Silk Roads’ were not simply about camel trains laden with precious consumer goods making their way westwards across the deserts and mountains between China and Europe. No, this is about the extraordinary level of connectedness that existed in ancient history and that trade goods travelled by both land and sea along transport links that spanned most of the known world.
Ever since the German geographer Ferdinand von Richtofen invented the term Seidenstrasse in 1877 the term has had a specific meaning – in part connected to the accounts left behind by travellers such as Marco Polo – of a number of trade routes that start in Western China and progress through the Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang, across the Pamirs and Hindu Kush towards Iran and then on from there to the Mediterranean coast.
The late 19th– early 20th century discovery of huge numbers of remarkable artefacts at ancient buddhist sites in Xinjiang by such luminaries as Sir Aurel Stein and Albert von Le Coq only added to the attraction of this idea as a way of explaining the importance of international commerce in world history. But as Warwick Ball has pointed out, doubts over the use of this concept have been around since at least the 1940s, when Owen Lattimore refuted the idea that Xinjiang was deliberately opened up by the Chinese to export silk.[1] Hugh Pope called the idea “a Romantic Deception”, while Susan Whitfield, currently Professor of Silk Road Studies at the University of East Anglia, opened her 2020 book Silk Roads with the words “There was no ‘Silk Road’”.[2]
So anyone arriving at the exhibition and looking for vistas of Samarkand and Bokhara or pictures of caravanserai and shaggy Bactrian camels is in for some disappointment. And please note, almost everything on show dates from between the 5th and 10th centuries CE, a period in history about which very few people have a good grasp. Who was ruling China, Central Asia and the Middle East during these turbulent years? And even though the garnets in jewels recovered from Anglo-Saxon burials such as Sutton Hoo likely came from mines that were thousands of miles to the east, little is known about the nitty-gritty that underlay the trade in these kinds of luxury goods.
However, that being said, the curators of this exhibition have been able to give an indication of the extent of international trade during this period of history. They show that trade was not simply east-west, but that north-south interactions were equally important, as was Central Asia’s connection to India. Nor was it simply trade goods such as silk and jewels that were exchanged. War tactics, social customs, diplomacy, pilgrimage, literature and other cultural artefacts were also exchanged over vast distances. Maritime routes, such as those in the Baltic, the Red Sea and Indian Ocean were also central to this interchange of goods and ideas.
Great social transformations, including the expansion of Islam from the 7th Century, the growth of the Tang Dynasty in China, the end of the Roman Empire and the growth of Byzantium and the expansion in the Holy Roman Empire under Charlemagne were also important factors in determining trade routes and exchange objects. This was a time when Christianity, Islam and Buddhism were all expanding.
Small glass cup from Alexandria
So it is hardly surprising that visitors to the exhibition will hear about places never before mentioned in relation to the Silk Road. Heijo-kyo in Japan, Silla in Korea and Chang’an in north-central China are placenames that are unlikely to be on the tip of one’s tongue. And yet the objects found in each of these places tell remarkable tales. Take the small blue glass cup found at Cheonmachong Tomb at Gyeongju in Korea. It dates from the early sixth century and has a honeycomb-patterned decoration produced using a mould-blowing technique. Such glasses can be found across Roman territory, but it was probably made at Alexandria in Egypt.
Items recovered from shipwrecks in the Indian Ocean also provide an insight into ancient trade. During the period in question ships sailed from northern China via the Indonesian islands to India, Persia, Arabia and the east coast of Africa. In 1998 the wreck of the Tang Dynasty ship now known as the Belitung was found near Sumatra, comprising more than 60,000 pieces of Tang ceramics and other objects that date to the 9th Century CE. It was probably on its way back to the Persian Gulf when it sank. Its cargo provides a great cross-section of commercial goods from the period.
The Miraculous Image of Liangzhou
The discovery in 1900 of the Dunhuang caves in the Tarim Basin of Xinjiang provides another great source of trade goods. In Cave 17 Aurel Stein found (and bought) 70,000 manuscripts, paintings and other objects, several wonderful examples of which are in the exhibition. These objects transformed the way in which the culture and history of this region was understood. The Miraculous Image of Liangzhou, more than 2.5 metres in height and embroidered with silk thread on silk and hemp, is one such item.
The exhibition never ceases to amaze the visitor as it demonstrates the extent to which our ancestors traded with one another. Khazars, Vikings, Alans, Eritreans, Sogdians and many other societies knew of each other and sent trade goods huge distances.
So at the end of the exhibition what can we say? The Silk Road is a misnomer? Yes! It was never a single road? Yes! Trade was in both directions, not to mention north and south and often by sea? Yes! In other words, we are talking about international trade and exchange of ideas. It was a phenomenon not restricted to one part of the globe – if we exclude South America – or one culture. But are we throwing the baby out with the bathwater? There is a danger that in generalising our understanding of the Silk Road to include just about all international trade we lose the very specificity that made it a powerful idea in the first place. More than likely that is what is happening. Scholarship on the Silk Road has now outgrown the original subject and awaits a new definition and focus. But for now, go along and see the incredible exhibits. It is crowded and you cannot easily move from one glass case to another, but it’s almost worth the entry just to see that tiny little buddha.
[1] Warwick Ball, The Eurasian Steppe: People, Movement, Ideas, Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, 2021.
One of the tigers that arrived in Kazakhstan this week
The arrival of two tigers from Holland in Kazakhstan in the last few days is the latest development in a programme that has been in place for several years. In June this year the Forestry and Wildlife committee of the Kazakh Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources signed a cooperation agreement with the Stichting Leeuw Special Centre for Feline Predators at Landgoed Hoenderdaell Zoo in Holland. The zoo agreed to provided a male and a female Amur tiger, to be relocated to the 415,000-hectare Ile-Balkhash State Nature Reserve in the south-east of the country. Now they have arrived it is likely that these first two tigers will not be released into the wild immediately, but that their offspring will be freed to wander throughout the Reserve.
These tigers are genetically identical to the Turanian tiger that once inhabited large parts of Central Asia including Kazakhstan, the last one of which was seen in the country in 1948. Their ability to withstand the freezing winter conditions of Kazakhstan was the main reason they were chosen.
Stichting Leeuw has the largest shelter for big cats in Europe, including the only hunting simulator in the world, which is used to teach rescued big cats the skills they need to return to the wild.
Bukhara deer, over 60 of which were released three years ago into the Ile-Balkhash reserve
In July Kazakhstan’s Ecology Ministry signed a further memorandum of cooperation with the World Wide Fund for Nature. As long ago as July 2021 the Kazakhs introduced 61 endangered Bukhara deer into the area where the tigers will be released. This species had been extinct in the region for the last 100 years. Nine of the deer were fitted with satellite collars to allow the reintroduction team to monitor their movements and warn if they strayed too far from the release site. There were once less than 400 of these deer, but they have been brought back from the brink of extinction and are now thought to number more than 1,400 at sites in Tajikistan and Uzbekistan.
Habitat preparation was also started to provide cover for the big cats. WWF has been consulting with local communities to ensure minimal human-tiger conflict and a compensation scheme for loss of livestock.
Siberian Steppes 